PROTECTING THE OCEANS BEYOND NATIONAL JURISDICTION STRENGTHENING THE INTERNATIONAL LAW FRAMEWORK

Chapter 1 The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 1

A．Introduction 1

B．The Physical Characteristics of the Open Ocean and Deep Seabed Environments 2

1．Marine Biological Divisions of the Ocean 3

2．Biogeographic Divisions of the Ocean 5

3．Seafloor Topography 6

C．Deep Sea Habitats 7

1．Seamounts 7

2．Hydrothermal Vents 8

3．Cold Seeps and Pockmarks 10

4．Deep Sea Trenches 11

5．Deep Sea Coral Reefs 13

D．Threats to the Marine Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction from Human Activities 14

1．Threats Associated with Marine Living Resource Exploitation 15

2．Threats Associated with Marine Transport 17

3．Threats Associated with Deep Seabed Mining 18

4．Threats Associated with Bioprospecting and Marine Scientific Research 20

5．Threats Associated with Climate Change Mitigation Activities 21

E．Conclusion 25

Chapter 2 The Law of the Sea Convention Framework for Regulating Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 27

A．Introduction 27

B．The High Seas Regime 28

1．Invalidity of Sovereign Claims over the High Seas 30

2．Freedoms of the High Seas 31

3．Flag State Jurisdiction 35

4．Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas 39

C．The Seabed Beyond National Jurisdiction 40

D．Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment 47

1．General Provisions 47

2．Global and Regional Cooperation in Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 50

3．Environmental Impact Assessment and Monitoring 51

4．Prescriptive Jurisdiction over Pollution of the Marine Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 52

5．Enforcement Jurisdiction over Pollution of the Marine Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 55

E．Conclusion 64

Chapter 3 Developing Complementary Principles for Regulating the Marine Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 67

A．Introduction 67

B．Establishing a Framework for Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment 68

1．Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment 68

C．Integrated and Ecosystem Based Management of the Marine Environment 74

1．World Conservation Strategy-IUCN/UNEP/WWF Report 1980 75

2．Our Common Future-Brundtland Report 1987 77

3．Caring for the Earth-A Strategy for Sustainable Living-IUCN/UNEP/WWF Report,1991 79

4．United Nations Conference on Environment and Development(UNCED),1992 80

5．Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD),1992 91

6．World Summit on Sustainable Development-Johannesburg 2002 95

D．Conclusion 96

Chapter 4 Sectoral Implementation of Environmental Protection in Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction-Marine Living Resource Exploitation and Maritime Transport 99

A．Introduction 99

B．The Exploitation of Marine Living Resources Beyond National Jurisdiction-Regulatory Framework for Environmental Protection 100

1．1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement 102

2．FAO Code for Responsible Fisheries,1995 108

3．FAO High Seas Compliance Agreement,1993 111

4．Regional Fisheries Management Organizations 112

5．Overall Assessment of RFMO Performance in relation to Protection of the Marine Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 124

C．Maritime Transport Beyond National Jurisdiction-Environmental Regulation 127

1．Vessel Source Pollution 128

2．Invasive Aquatic Species in Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 145

3．Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas 148

4．The Effectiveness of the Maritime Transport Framework for Environmental Protection in Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 154

Chapter 5 Sectoral Implementation of Environmental Protection in Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction-Deep Seabed Mining 157

A．Introduction 157

B．ISA Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the Area 158

1．Polymetallic Nodule Environmental Guidelines and State Practice in Complying with Polymetallic Nodules Regulations 162

C．Draft ISA Regulations for Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Sulphides and Ferromanganese Cobalt Rich Crusts(PSFCRC Regulations) 166

D．Conclusion 170

Chapter 6 Regional Implementation of Environmental Protection in Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 173

A．Introduction 173

B．UNEP Regional Seas Conventions and their Application to Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 175

1．Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region(Noumea Convention) 177

2．Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean(Barcelona Convention) 181

3．Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region(Cartagena Convention) 187

4．Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the South East Pacific(Lima Convention) 190

C．Non UNEP Regional Marine Environmental Protection Regimes and their Application to Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 193

1．Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Northeast Atlantic(OSPAR Convention) 193

2．Integrated Protection of the Antarctic Marine Environment 199

D．Conclusion 204

Chapter 7 International Initiatives to Strengthen the Environmental Protection Framework for Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 207

A．Introduction 207

B．Current International Discussions on the Protection of the Marine Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 208

1．United Nations Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea(UNICPOLOS) 209

2．BBNJ Working Group 211

3．Convention on Biological Diversity Conference of the Parties(CBD COP) 214

4．FAO Committee on Fisheries(COFI) 215

5．IUCN High Seas Governance for the 21st Century Workshop 215

C．Options for Strengthening the Environmental Protection Framework for Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 220

1．Soft Law Declaration of Oceans Governance Principles for Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 221

2．Global Binding Instruments to Strengthen Environmental Protection Beyond National Jurisdiction 221

3．Regional Agreements 231

D．Conclusion 233

Bibliography 235

Index 257