英汉请求策略理论与实证对比研究 礼貌语用学视野

Tables 54

Table 2-1：List of felicity conditions on the directive class 54

Table 2-2：Request strategies 66

Table 3-1：Social distance and dominance variation for each request situation 110

Table 4-1：Request strategies for the AM and CHN groups in the DCT 114

Table 4-2：Frequency of formal means of requests by the AM,IL and CHN groups 116

Table 4-3：Situations in each situation set 126

Table 4-4：Opting out strategy 126

Table 4-5：Direct strategy 127

Table 4-6：Conventionally indirect strategy 128

Table 4-7：Combined strategy 129

Table 4-8：Non-conventionally indirect strategy 129

Table 4-9：Cultural stratifications of strategy categories for all situations for groups AM,IL and CHN 130

Table 4-10：Combined strategies of requests 131

Table 4-11：+SD(Directness levels) 135

Table 4-12：-SD(Directness levels) 135

Table 4-13：Comparison of intra-groups in the use of strategies between +SD and -SD 136

Table 4-14：X=Y(Directness levels) 137

Table 4-15：X＞Y(Directness levels) 137

Table 4-16：X＜Y(Directness levels) 138

Table 4-17：Comparison of intra-groups in the use of strategies between X=Y,X＞Y and X＜Y 138

Table 4-18：Comparison between three groups in the case of request controllability 142

Table 4-19：Comparison of the age differences in the use of strategies 144

Table 4-20：Sexual differences of request strategies for the AM group in three situations 145

Table 4-21：Sexual differences of request strategies for the IL group in three situations 145

Table 4-22：Sexual differences of request strategies for the CHN group in three situations 146

Table 4-23：Sexual differences of request strategies in three situations 146

Table 4-24：Comparison of three groups in the use of modification 150

Table 4-25：Comparison of pre-modification of requests among three groups 153

Table 4-26：Comparison of three groups in the use of tokens 156

Table 4-27：S3.Notes(-SD,X=Y) 158

Table 4-28：S12.Train(-SD,X＜Y) 160

Table 4-29：S6.Policeman(+SD,X＞Y) 162

Table 4-30：Comparison of three groups in request responses 197

Table 4-31：Responses to requests in S5 ＆ S9(+D)situations by the AM group 199

Table 4-32：Responses to requests in S5 ＆ S9(+D)situations by the IL group 200

Table 4-33：Responses to requests in S5 ＆ S9(+D)situations by the CHN group 200

Table 4-34：Responses to requests in S3 ＆ S12(-SD)situations by the AM group 201

Table 4-35：Responses to requests in S3 ＆ S12(-SD)situations by the IL group 201

Table 4-36：Responses to requests in S3 ＆ S12(-SD)situations by the CHN group 202

Table 4-37：Responses to requests in S1 ＆ S3(X=Y)situations by the AM group 203

Table 4-38：Responses to requests in S1 ＆ S3(X=Y)situations by the IL group 203

Table 4-39：Responses to requests in S1 ＆ S3(X=Y)situations by the CHN group 204

Table 4-40：Responses to requests in S4 ＆ S7(X＜Y)situations by the AM group 204

Table 4-41：Responses to requests in S4 ＆ S7(X＜Y)situations by the IL group 205

Table 4-42：Responses to requests in S4 ＆ S7(X＜Y) situations by the CHN group 205

Table 4-43：Responses to requests in S6 ＆ S8(X＞Y)situations by the AM group 206

Table 4-44：Responses to requests in S6 ＆ S8(X＞Y)situations by the IL 206

Table 4-45：Responses to requests in S6 ＆ S8(X＞Y)situations by the CHN group 207

Figures 25

Fig.2-1：Different communicative styles 25

Fig.2-2：An old lady or a young lady 28

Fig.2-3：The pragmatic continuum:language-culture 30

Fig.2-4：Speech act classification in terms of strategies 38

Fig.2-5：Causal relation of acts 41

Fig.2-6：Indirect commands with two responses 50

Fig.2-7：Force dynamics model 53

Fig.2-8：Classification of requestives 55

Fig.2-9：Modifications of requests 70

Fig.2-10：Principles and maxims of interaction 80

Fig.2-11：Possible strategies for doing FTAs 81

Fig.2-12：Scale of politeness 89

Fig.4-1：Mapping of input to output in OT grammar 180

Fig.4-2：Optimal choice of request strategies 180

Fig.4-3：Grammaticalization process 184

Fig.4-4：Apology classifications 212

Fig.5-1：Comparison of compliment responding strategies between Americans and the Chinese 228

Fig.5-2：Facial expressions 241

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Orientation of the Title 2

1.2 Motivations of the Present Study 4

1.3 The Concept and Criteria of Requests 6

1.4 Intonation of Speech Acts 9

1.5 The Nature of the Present Study 11

1.6 Propositional Opacity of Requests 15

1.7 Methods 16

1.8 The Aims and Hypotheses of the Present Study 17

1.9 Layout and Scope of the Present Study 19

1.10 Summary 20

Chapter 2 Theoretical Background to the Contrastive Study of Requests in English and Chinese 21

2.1 Introduction 22

2.2 Pragmatics:Language Use in Contexts 22

2.3 Cross-cultural Pragmatics 24

2.4 Sociopragmatics 29

2.5 Interlanguage Pragmatics 31

2.6 Metapragmatics 33

2.7 Interpersonal Relationship Studies 36

2.8 Linguistic Strategies 38

2.9 Speech Act Theories 40

2.10 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts 46

2.11 Direct ＆ Indirect Speech Acts and Politeness 50

2.12 Empirically-based Cognitive Model of Speech Acts 52

2.13 Request Classification and Request Strategies 54

2.13.1 Request Classification 54

2.13.2 Formal Means of Requests 56

2.13.3 Structural Components of Requests 63

2.13.4 Request Strategy:a Functional Perspective 64

2.13.5 Modifications of Requests 69

2.13.5.1 Internal Modifications 70

2.13.5.2 External Modifications 74

2.14 Politeness Theories 77

2.15 Politeness of Requests 85

2.16 Literature Review of Request Studies by Chinese Scholars 90

2.17 Summary 94

Chapter 3 Request Data Collection:Design and Methodology 95

3.1 Introduction 96

3.2 Examples of Requests in English and Chinese in the Actual Discourse 96

3.3 Subjects and Procedure 103

3.4 The Questionnaire 105

3.4.1 The Discourse Completion Test 105

3.4.2 Modifications of the DCT for the Present Study 108

3.5 Summary 110

Chapter 4 Analysis and Discussion of the Results 112

4.1 Introduction 113

4.2 Request Forms in English and Chinese 113

4.2.1 Similarities 114

4.2.2 Differences 116

4.3 Situational Variations and Situational Sets in the Use of Strategies 121

4.3.1 Situational Variations in the Use of Strategies 121

4.3.1.1 The AM Group 121

4.3.1.2 The IL Group 123

4.3.1.3 The CHN Group 124

4.3.2 Distribution of Main Request Strategy Categories in the Six Situation Sets 126

4.3.3 Cross-cultural Differences in the Interaction 130

4.3.4 Summary 132

4.4 Major Variables in the Use of Request Strategy 132

4.4.1 Social Distance and Dominance 133

4.4.1.1 Social Distance 134

4.4.1.2 Dominance 136

4.4.2 Controllability of Acts 139

4.4.2.1 High Controllability 141

4.4.2.2 Low Controllability 141

4.4.3 Age 142

4.4.3.1 The Same Age 143

4.4.3.2 The Younger to the Older 143

4.4.3.3 The Older to the Younger 143

4.4.3.4 Summary 143

4.4.4 Sex 145

4.4.4.1 The AM Group 145

4.4.4.2 The IL Group 145

4.4.4.3 The CHN Group 146

4.4.4.4 Summary 146

4.5 Modifications of Requests 149

4.5.1 The AM Group 149

4.5.2 The IL Group 149

4.5.3 The CHN Group 150

4.5.4 Summary 150

4.6 Pre-modification of Requests 151

4.6.1 The AM Group 151

4.6.2 The IL Group 152

4.6.3 The CHN Group 152

4.6.4 Summary 153

4.7 Tokens Used in the Requests among the Three Groups 154

4.7.1 The AM Group 155

4.7.2 The IL Group 155

4.7.3 The CHN Group 155

4.7.4 Summary 155

4.8 Request Perspectives 156

4.8.1 Introduction 156

4.8.2 In Situation(-SD,X=Y) 158

4.8.3 In Situation(-SD,X＜Y) 159

4.8.4 In Situation(+SD,X＞Y) 161

4.8.5 Summary 163

4.9 Initiating Markers of Requests 164

4.9.1 Address Form 164

4.9.2 "Excuse me"and"Sorry" 166

4.9.3 The Typical Request Markers"Please"and“请” 168

4.9.3.1 The AM Group 169

4.9.3.2 The IL Group 170

4.9.3.3 The CHN Group 171

4.9.3.4 Summary 172

4.10 Other Inferring Strategies Used in the Requesting Action 173

4.11 Special Strategies of Requests——A Metonymic Approach 176

4.12 The Disease to Please 177

4.13 Tentative Analyses of the Common Features of Request Production 179

4.14 Responses to Requests 192

4.14.1 Introduction 192

4.14.2 The AM Group 196

4.14.3 The IL Group 196

4.14.4 The CHN Group 197

4.14.5 Summary 197

4.14.6 Social Distance,Dominance and Sex in the Responses 199

4.14.6.1 Social Distance 199

4.14.6.2 Dominance 203

4.14.6.3 Sex 208

4.15 Tentative Analyses of the Common Features of Request Responses 209

4.16 From Requests to Apologies 211

4.17 Summary 213

Chapter 5 Conclusions 214

5.1 Introduction 215

5.2 Major Findings 215

5.3 Tentative Analyses from the Cultural Perspective 221

5.4 Chinese Politeness from Responding to Compliments 226

5.5 Pragmatic Tact in Language Use 228

5.6 Cross-cultural Pragmatic Failure and Pragmatic Competence Development in the ForeignLanguage Teaching 230

5.6.1 Cross-cultural Pragmatic Failure 231

5.6.2 Pragmatic Competence and its Teachability 233

5.7 Speculations about the Weaknesses of this Study 239

5.7.1 The C-constituting Model of Communication 240

5.7.2 Nonverbal Language 241

5.7.3 Sequences of Speech Acts 242

5.7.4 Suggested Future Research Dimensions 243

5.8 Conclusions 244

Appendix Ⅰ：A Glossary in English and Chinese 245

Appendix Ⅱ：Questionnaire of requests (the English version) 255

Appendix Ⅲ：Questionnaire of requests(the Chinese version) 258

Appendix Ⅳ：Idiomatic Expressions of Requests in English 261

Appendix Ⅴ：Idiomatic Expressions of Requests in Chinese 265

Appendix Ⅵ：Dr.Braiker's 21 Day Action Plan to Cure People-Pleasing Disease 267

Bibliography 271