新编语言学基础教程

1 Language:An Introduction 1

1.1 Properties of language 1

1.1.1 Communicative versus informative 1

1.2.1 Unique properties 2

1.1.2.1 Displacement 2

1.1.2.2 Arbitrariness 3

1.1.2.3 Productivity 4

1.1.2.4 Cultural transmission 5

1.1.2.5 Discreteness 5

1.1.2.6 Duality 6

1.1.3 Other properties 6

1.2 Language functions 7

2 What Is Linguistics? 10

2.1 What is linguistics 10

2.2 What do linguists do? 11

2.2.1 The study of language 11

2.2.2 Application of language study 13

2.3 Some basic distinctions in linguistics 16

2.3.1 Description vs.Prescription 16

2.3.2 Langue and parole 17

2.3.3 Synchrony and diachrony 17

2.3.4 Competence and performance 17

2.3.5 Speech and writing 18

3 Phonetics:The Sound of Language 20

3.1 Representing speech o paper-IPR 22

3.2 The classification of English consonants 24

3.3 Vowels 28

4 Phonology:The Sound Patterns of Language 31

4.1 Phonemes:the phonological units of language 32

4.2 Minimal pairs 32

4.3 Form and meaning 33

4.4 Distinctive features 34

4.5 Sequence constraints 34

4.6 Phones and allophones 36

4.7 Phonological process rules 38

4.7.1 Assimilation rules 38

4.7.2 Dissimilation rules 39

4.8 Suprasegmental features 41

4.8.1 Stress 41

4.8.2 Pitch 44

4.8.3 Intonation 44

5 Morphonogy:The Words of Language 47

5.1 Open and closed classes of words 48

5.2 Word sets 49

5.3 Morphemes:the minimal units of meaning 50

5.4 Allomorphs 54

5.4.1 Phonological conditioning of allomorphs 54

5.4.2 Morphological conditioning of allomorphs 54

5.5.1 Morphological rules of word formation 55

5.5 English word formation 55

5.5.1.1 Derivation 56

5.5.2 English word formation 56

5.5.1.1.1 Prefixation 57

5.5.1.1.2 Suffixaion 59

5.5.1.2 Compounding 59

5.5.1.3 Conversion 60

5.5.1.4 Acronyms 63

5.5.1.5 Clipping 63

5.5.1.6 Blending 64

5.5.1.7 Back-formation 64

5.5.1.8 Reduplication 64

6.1 Traditional grammatical concepts 66

6 Syntax:Traditional Grammar 66

6.1.1 The parts of speech 67

6.1.2 Some other traditional categories 67

6.1.3 Traditional analysis 68

6.1.3.1 Appropriateness 68

6.1.3.2 The prescriptive approach 69

6.1.3.3 Sentence,clause and phrase 71

7 Structural Grammar 79

7.1 Discovery procedure 79

7.2 Phoneme and morpheme 80

7.3 Word class 81

7.3.1 Nouns 82

7.3.2 Verbs 83

7.3.3 Adjectives and adverbs 83

7.4 Function word 84

7.5 Sentence formulas 86

7.6 Immediate constituent analysis 86

8 Transformational-Generative Grammar 93

8.1 Transformation 93

8.2 Generation 101

8.3 Rules 105

9 Semantics:The Meaning of Language 111

9.1 Semantic properties 111

9.2 Ambiguity 114

9.3 Metaphor 116

9.4 Paraphrase 118

9.5 Antonyms:different sounds,opposite meanings 121

9.6 Anomaly:no sense and nonsense 122

9.7 Idioms 125

9.8 The ‘truth’of sentences 126

9.9 Sense and reference 128

10 Pragmatics 130

10.1 What is pragmatics? 130

10.2 Deixis and distance 131

10.2.1 Person dexis 131

10.2.2 Spatial Deixis 132

10.2.3 Temporal deixis 134

10.3 Context 135

10.4 Reference and inference 135

10.5 Presupposition 137

10.6 Speech acts 137

10.6.1 Three dimensions of speech acts 138

10.6.2 IFID 139

10.6.3 Felicity conditions 140

10.6.4 Speech act classification 140

10.6.5 Direct and indirect speech acts 142

10.7 Politeness 143

11.1 Interpreting discourse 146

11 Discourse Analysis 146

11.2 Cohesion 147

11.3 Coherence 148

11.4 Speech events 149

11.4.1 Conversational interaction 149

11.4.2 The co-operative principle 150

11.5 Background knowledge 151

12 Languages and Writing 155

12.1 Ideographic writing 155

12.2 Pictographic writing 158

12.3 Syllabic writing,unlimited and limited 160

12.4 Alphabetic writing 161

12.5 The wanderings of the alphabet 164

13 Language History and Change 170

13.1 Family trees 170

13.3 Cognates 171

13.2 Family relationships 172

13.4 Comparative reconstruction 172

13.5 Language change 174

13.5.1 Old English 175

13.5.2 Middle English 176

13.5.3 Sound changes 176

13.5.4 Syntactic changes 178

13.5.5 Lexical Changes 178

13.6 The process of change 179

14 Language and Society 180

14.1 What is sociolinguistics? 180

14.2 Relationships between language and society 181

14.3 Some basic methodological concerns 182

14.4 Social dialects 184

15.2 Language and dialects 184

14.4.1 Social class 185

14.4.2 Age and gender 186

14.4.3 Ethnic background 189

14.4.4 Idiolect 189

14.4.5 Style,register and jargon 190

14.4.6 Diglossia 191

15 Language Varieties 193

15.1 What is variety? 193

15.3 Accent and dialect 200

15.4 Regional dialects 201

15.5 Bilingualism 203

15.6 Pidgins and creoles 203

15.7 Language planning 206

16 Language and Culture 209

16.1 What is culture? 209

16.2 Linguistic determinism 210

16.3 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 211

16.4 Kinship system 214

16.5 Color-terms 216

16.6 Prototype theory 218

16.7 Taboo and euphemism 219

17 First Language Acquisition 224

17.1 Theories of first language acquisition 224

17.1.1 Behavioristic approaches 225

17.1.2 The nativist approach 227

17.1.3 Functional approaches 230

17.2 Issues in child language acquisition 232

17.2.1 Competence and performance 232

17.2.2 Comprehension and production 234

17.2.3 Nature or nurture? 234

17.2.4 Universals 235

17.2.5 Systematicity and variability 236

17.2.6 Language and thought 236

17.2.7 Imitation 237

17.2.8 Practice 238

17.2.9 Input 239

17.2.10 Discourse 240

18 Theories of Second Language Acquisition 242

18.1 Hypotheses and models 242

18.1.1 Krashen s Input Hypothesis 244

18.1.2 Mclaughlin s Attention-processing 246

18.1.3 Bialystok s Analysis/Automaticity Model 248

18.1.4 Variability models 250

18.1.5 The Believing and Doubting Games 251

18.2 From theory to practice 252

Appendix Corpus Linguistics 255

Definition of corpus 256

Definition of corpus linguistics 257

The early stage of corpus linguistics-historical conspectus 258

The second stage-the beginning modern corpus linguistics 261

The third stage-thd resurgence of corpus linguistics 265

Issues in corpus design and compilation 270

Corpus Annotation 275

References 282